Cooperative
learning is the instructional use of small groups so that students work
together to maximize their own and each other’s learning. (Johnson, Johnson,
Smith, 1992)
Elements
of cooperative learning
1.
Positive interdependence. Team members are
obliged to rely on one another to achieve the goal. If any team member fail to
do their part, everyone suffers consequences.
2.
Individual accountability. All students in a group
are held accountable for doing their share of the work and for mastery of all
of the material to be learned.
3.
Face-to-face promotive interaction. Although some of the
group work may be parceled out and done individually, some must be done
interactively, with group members providing one another with feedback,
challenging one another's conclusions and reasoning, and perhaps most
importantly, teaching and encouraging one another.
4.
Appropriate use of collaborative skills.
Students
are encouraged and helped to develop and practice trust building, leadership,
decision-making, communication, and conflict management skills.
5.
Group processing. Team members set group
goals, periodically assess what they are doing well as a team, and identify
changes they will make to function more effectively in the future. (Felder,
1994)
Cooperative
Learning Structures
Corners
- Participants are given 4 or more choices
concerning a particular topic or idea.
- Participants then go to the section of the
room where others that selected that choice are told to gather. Works well
to have the choice on a sign that is taped in that corner or area of the
room.
- Participants form pairs in the group and
discuss why they selected a particular choice, or respond to other focus
questions from the instructor.
- Instructor randomly selects participants to
share their responses or the key points that came up in their pair.
One advantage of this strategy is that it can be used to reinforce
course content, to clarify participant values, and to develop an understanding
of differences in values and opinions.
The four corners strategy is used to ensure that all participants
participate in group activities. It helps to develop listening, verbal
communication, critical thinking, and decision-making skills in the classroom
context.
Not only does it encourage participants to participate in activities by
making decisions, it encourages participants to cognitively justify their
decisions.
You can also
use this to form teams—heterogeneous teams by selecting one individual from
each corner to make a 4-member team, or homogeneous teams by selecting
individuals in one corner to make a team.
Adapted from these sources:
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Center for Teaching
Excellence: http://www.oir.uiuc.edu/Did/Resources/Illini%20Instructor/collaborative.htm
Muskingum
Area Technical College (Zanesville, Ohio) http://www.muskingum.edu/~cal/database/general/group.html#Corners
Think-Pair-Share and
Variations
Pairs. Think-pair-share.
Participants are given a prompt (a question, problem, visual, etc.) and
first asked to think about the prompt individually and jot down ideas.
Participants then form pairs, talk about their responses, and formulate a joint
response. Some pairs are then called on to summarize their discussion for the
class.
Pairs. Think-pair-square.
Same as above, but two pairs of participants join together to share and
compare the results, rather than moving to a whole group discussion.
Pairs. Turn-to-your-neighbor discussions.
Participants to "turn to a neighbor" and brainstorm answers to
a question or discuss a solution to a problem. Call on participants for
answers. Ask the class for a show of hands of who agrees or disagrees with an
answer.
Pairs. Pair-and-compare.
During a 2-3 minute break in lecture, participants form pairs to compare
their notes, remaking the notes by adding information or correcting as needed.
Participant responses can be shared within learning
teams, with larger groups, or with the entire class during a follow-up
discussion (Share).
The caliber of discussion is enhanced by this
technique since, too often, the extroverts with the quickest hand reflexes are
called on when an instructor poses a question to the entire class. In addition,
all participants have an opportunity to learn by reflection and by verbalization.
Think-Pair-Share, like most other cooperative learning structures,
capitalizes on the principle of simultaneity (Kagan, 1992, p. 4:5-7). Many
participants (50% in Think-Pair-Share) are actively vocalizing ideas at a given
moment, whereas in a more traditional classroom, only the lecturer is active or
the one participant at a time who is responding to his or her questions
Adapted from these sources:
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Center for Teaching
Excellence: http://www.oir.uiuc.edu/Did/Resources/Illini%20Instructor/collaborative.htm
Cooperative Learning Structures
by Barbara J. Millis, US Air Force Academy
Roundtable
Roundtable, a cooperative learning structure useful for brainstorming,
reviewing, or practicing a skill, uses a single sheet of paper and pen for each
cooperative learning group.
1. Participants in the group respond in turn to a
question or problem by stating their ideas aloud as they write them on the
paper.
·
It is
important that the ideas be vocalized for several reasons: (a) silence in a
setting like this is boring, rather than golden; (b) other team members need to
be reflecting on the proffered thoughts; (c) variety results because teammates
learn immediately that someone has come up with an idea they know now not to
repeat; and (d) hearing the responses said aloud means that participants do not
have to waste valuable brainstorming time by reading the previous ideas on the
page.
2. Team members are encouraged not to skip turns, but
if their thoughts are at a standstill, they are allowed to say,
"Pass" rather than to turn the brainstorm into a brain drizzle. Thus,
there is almost universal participation in Roundtable.
Roundtable is most effective when used in a carefully sequenced series
of activities. The brainstorming can reinforce ideas from the readings or can
be used to set the stage for upcoming discussions. Participants, for example,
could identify the characteristics of an effective leader or the attributes of
terrorism before these topics are formally introduced.
Comparing a participant-generated list with those of the
"experts," creates interest. Many creative uses can be made of the
ideas generated, depending on their nature.
In Roundtable, the multiple answers encourage creativity and deeper
thinking. This activity builds positive interdependence among team members
because of the shared writing surface, but more importantly, it builds team
cohesion and reinforces the power of teamwork because participants see in
action the value of multiple viewpoints and ideas.
Adapted from these sources:
Cooperative Learning Structures
By Barbara J. Millis, US Air Force Academy
Semantic Mapping
Semantic
mapping (a.k.a., mind-mapping, idea mapping, word webbing, etc.) is a term,
which describes a variety of strategies designed to show how key words or
concepts are related to one another through graphic representations.
Steps:
1. Write the title of the subject in the center of the
page, and draw a circle around it.
2. For the major subject subheadings, draw lines out
from this circle. Label these lines with the subheadings.
3. If you have another level of information belonging
to the subheadings above, draw these and link them to the subheading lines.
4. Finally, for individual facts or ideas, draw lines
out from the appropriate heading line and label them.
These maps are useful for:
·
summarizing
information
·
consolidating
information from different research sources
·
thinking
through complex problems, and
·
presenting
information that shows the overall structure of your subject
Research on memory and learning emphasizes the importance of
associations. The structure of a semantic map with branches promotes
associations. The creation of such a map
in small groups facilitates a deeper analysis of the topic through
brainstorming, and allows participants to voice their ideas, support their
ideas with evidence, listen to other points of view, and gain confidence.
Adapted from these sources:
Jeffrey D. Maggard
Mind Maps As Classroom Exercises
John W. Budd, University of Minnesota, March 2003
Numbered Heads Together
1.
Participants
number off at their table group.
2.
Instructor
poses question.
3.
Participants
put their heads together to generate a common answer. They must make sure
everyone on the team knows the answer. They should also be ready to supply
support for their answer(s) from the text and/or from other knowledge.
4.
Instructor
calls a number. That person provides the response for their team.
“Numbered Heads Together” encourages successful
group functioning because all members need to know their group’s answer(s) and
because when participants help their team mates, they help themselves and the
whole group.
Ideas for Using Numbered:
- Reviewing for a test, discussing experiment
results,
- Solving problems; case studies
- Discussing issues, best practices
- Revising, editing content of written work
samples
- Finding answers or source material in work
reference tools (e.g. procedure manuals)
- Creating flow charts or working through other
process improvement tools
Adapted from these sources:
Laura Candler
Cooperative Learning Network
Jigsaw
Participants
in many disciplines often confront complex, challenging problems involving
multiple pieces of information necessary for a final, overall solution. Such
problems are ideally suited for the cooperative learning structure, Jigsaw. In
this structure, each member of a team assumes responsibility for a specific
part of a problem. They are responsible not just for mastering or knowing their
part; they must also be able to teach the material to their fellow teammates.
Thus, working together, the group merges the various portions to solve the
"puzzle."
Steps:
1. Define the group project on which the class will be
working.
2. Randomly break the class into groups of 4-5 participants
each, depending on the size of the class, and assign a number (1 to 4-5) to
participants in each group.
3. Assign each participant/number a topic in which
he/she will become an expert.
o The topics could be related facets of a general
content theme.
o For example, in a computer class the general theme
might be hardware and the topics might be central processing unit (participant
#1), memory (participant #2), input devices (participant #3), and output
devices (participant #4).
4. Rearrange the participants into expert groups based
on their assigned numbers and topics.
o Provide the experts with the materials and
resources necessary to learn about their topics.
o The experts should be given the opportunity to
obtain knowledge through reading, research and discussion.
5. Reassemble the original groups.
o Experts then teach what they have learned to the
rest of the group.
o Take turns until all experts have presented their
new material.
6. Groups present results to the entire class, or they
may participate in some assessment activity.
7. At the end of the session, give a quiz on the
material so that participants quickly come to realize that these sessions are
not just fun and games but really count.
The jigsaw strategy is used to develop the skills and expertise needed
to participate effectively in group activities. It focuses on listening,
speaking, cooperation, reflection, and problem-solving skills.
- Listening - Participants must listen actively
in order to learn the required material and be able to teach it to others
in their original groups.
- Speaking - Participants will be responsible
for taking the knowledge gained from one group and repeating it to new
listeners in their original groups.
- Cooperation - All members of a group are
responsible for the success of others in the group.
- Reflective thinking - To successfully complete
the activity in the original group, there must be reflective thinking at
several levels about what was learned in the expert group.
- Creative thinking - Groups must devise new
ways of approaching, teaching and presenting material.
Adapted
from these sources:
Muskingum
College Learning Strategies Database
Cooperative Learning Structures
By Barbara J. Millis, US Air Force Academy
Learn more from the expert who originally devised this structure:
Elliot Aronson at
http://www.jigsaw.org/overview.htm
Benefits of Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning assists participants to retain more of
what they learn through structures that create opportunities to see, hear, say
and do.
Malcolm Knowles, often
referred to as the "father of adult education," found that adult
learning occurs best when it follows certain principles. If trainers follow
these guidelines, they will greatly enhance the learning experience for
participants (Knowles, 1990). Arnold et al. (1991), among other adult
educators, state that:….
People retain:
·
20 percent of what they hear
·
30 percent of what they see
·
50 percent of what they see and hear
·
70 percent of what they see, hear, and say
(e.g. discuss, explain to others)
·
90
percent of what they see, hear, say, and do
Cooperative learning does the following:
·
Mirrors team work in the workplace; builds community in classroom
·
Allows for simultaneous participation
·
Allows for anonymous participation
·
Increases reliance on work related resources such as manuals, guides or
each other rather than instructor
·
Increases participation of those uncomfortable with speaking in big
groups
·
Reduces learning anxiety
·
Provides content free, flexible learning structures that fit numerous
content areas.
References
Arnold, R.,
Burke, B., James, C., Martin, D., & Thomas, B. (1991). Educating for a
change. Toronto: Doris Marshall Institute for Education and Action Between
the Line.
Aronson, E., Blaney, N., Stephan, C., Sikes, J. &
Snapp, M. (1978). The Jigsaw Classroom. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage
Publications.
Felder, Richard M., (1994). “Cooperative Learning in Technical Courses: Procedures, Pitfalls, and
Payoffs.” Available online at http://www.ncsu.edu/felder-public/Papers/Coopreport.html
Johnson, R.T. & Johnson, D.W. (1991). Learning
Together and Alone: Cooperative, Competitive, and Individualistic Learning (3rd
ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Johnson, R.T., Johnson, D.W. & Holubec, E.J., Eds.
(1987). Structuring Cooperative Learning: Lesson Plans for Teachers.
Edina, MN: Interaction Book Company.
Johnson, R.T., Johnson, D.W. & Holubec, E.J. (1993). Circles
of Learning: Cooperation in the Classroom. Edina, MN: Interaction Book
Company
Johnson, R.T., Johnson, D.W. & Smith, K.A. (1991). Active
Learning: Cooperation in the College Classroom. Edina, MN: Interaction Book
Company.
Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T., and Smith,
K. (1992)
“Cooperative Learning: Increasing
College Faculty Instructional Productivity.”
Available online at http://www.ericdigests.org/1992-2/cooperative.htm
Kagan, S. (1996). Cooperative Learning. San
Clemente, CA: Kagan Cooperative Learning.
Knowles, M.
(1990). The adult learner: A
neglected species (4th ed.). Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing
Company.
Online References
Spencer Kagan – Cooperative Learning
Resources - http://www.kaganonline.com/index.html
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Center for Teaching
Excellence: http://www.oir.uiuc.edu/Did/Resources/Illini%20Instructor/collaborative.htm
Muskingum
Area Technical College (Zanesville, Ohio) http://www.muskingum.edu/~cal/database/general/group.html#Corners
Cooperative Learning Structures
By Barbara J. Millis, US Air Force Academy
Jeffrey D. Maggard
Mind Maps As Classroom Exercises
John W. Budd, University of Minnesota, March 2003
Laura Candler
Cooperative Learning Network
Elliot Aronson (Jigsaw creator) at http://www.jigsaw.org/overview.htm
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